On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 85%, based on 34 reviews, with an average rating of 7.9/10. The website's consensus reads, "The Wings of the Dove patiently explores class divisions in early 20th century Europe through the well-written and beautifully acted travails of star-crossed lovers."[7] On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 73 out of 100, based on 18 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[8]
The wings of Lepidoptera contain a matrix of living cells whose function requires appropriate temperatures. However, given their small thermal capacity, wings can overheat rapidly in the sun. Here we analyze butterfly wings across a wide range of simulated environmental conditions, and find that regions containing living cells are maintained at cooler temperatures. Diverse scale nanostructures and non-uniform cuticle thicknesses create a heterogeneous distribution of radiative cooling that selectively reduces the temperature of structures such as wing veins and androconial organs. These tissues are supplied by circulatory, neural and tracheal systems throughout the adult lifetime, indicating that the insect wing is a dynamic, living structure. Behavioral assays show that butterflies use wings to sense visible and infrared radiation, responding with specialized behaviors to prevent overheating of their wings. Our work highlights the physiological importance of wing temperature and how it is exquisitely regulated by structural and behavioral adaptations.
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The wings of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are important structures both in flight and in signaling, where they have been studied intensively in the context of sexual selection1,2,3, warning coloration4,5, mimicry6,7,8, and camouflage9,10. Although fully expanded wings are primarily composed of membranes covered by scales, mature wings also contain complex networks of cellular structures, with, for example, an extensive distribution of sensilla along the wing veins11,12,13,14,15. Campaniform sensilla are used to sense the strain or deformation of the wings14,15,16,17,18, and bristle sensilla found along wing veins and margins sense wing beat frequencies12,19. The afferent feedback from these mechanical sensilla to the central nervous system is critically involved in the generation of normal flight in insects14,15,16,17,18,19. Although detailed studies focus on only a few species of Lepidoptera, the taxonomic range of the species surveyed suggest that these are general features of lepidopteran wings.
Networks of living tissues typically require a constrained range of temperatures for optimal performance. Temperature regulation is critical in insects, with even minor changes in ambient temperatures having profound effects20,21,22,23. Much of the research on thermoregulation in adult Lepidoptera has focused on thoracic temperature and flight24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35. Little research has been done on the thermoregulatory and thermodynamic properties of the wings themselves. This is partly because of the difficulty of applying common temperature measurement techniques to such thin and light objects with small thermal capacity. In a pioneering early work, Wasserthal and Schmitz36 implanted thermistors into wings and other parts of butterflies and then heated the insects with a calibrated light beam. This technique demonstrated that antennae, wings and thorax heat up at different rates and reach specific excess temperatures. However, these implants have the drawback that they can substantially change the local thermal capacity of the wing and lead to inaccurate measurements of both wing temperatures and the dynamics of temperature change. Additional research on the temperature of butterfly wings has relied upon detecting thermal radiation generated by the wings using infrared cameras37. However, butterfly wings are largely semitransparent in the mid-infrared spectrum (except for the thick veins near the base of the wing), meaning that infrared radiation detected by the camera is only partially contributed by the wings, leading to errors in estimating the temperature over the entire wing.
In this work, we investigate the thermodynamic and thermoregulatory properties of the wing itself, first by observing the distribution and persistence over the entire adult lifespan of living tissues in the wings of butterflies, and then by studying the thermodynamics of the wing and the physical and behavioral adaptations that modulate wing temperatures in ways that protect these tissues. Using a robust ecological model species, Vanessa cardui38,39, we show that circulatory and tracheal systems remain active in the wing veins throughout the entire adult stage. We develop an infrared hyperspectral imaging technique that permits accurate temperature mapping of objects that are both lightweight and translucent in the mid-infrared. We find that wings are extremely heterogeneous in their thermodynamic properties, with wing veins and other living parts of the wing being cooler than inter-vein regions under solar radiation. This is achieved via elevated thermal emissivity due to a thickened chitinous layer and specialized nanostructuring of their scales such that they more efficiently dissipate heat through thermal radiation.
We conducted morphological studies of the wing micro-structures after carefully removing scales from both sides of the wings of living Vanessa cardui, Satyrium caryaevorus, and Parrhasius m-album butterflies. We selected these species for both pragmatic and biological reasons. Vanessa cardui (Fig. 1a) is a well-known ecological organism because it occurs worldwide, engages in long-distance migration, is highly polyphagous, and can be purchased and raised on artificial diet. The other two species were chosen because they possess androconial scent pads and are locally available and easy to collect and observe in the field.
Extensive studies have established that the visible colors of butterfly wings are created by the deposition of pigments in the wing scales and/or optical diffraction by nanostructuring of the scales54,55,56,57,58,59. Here we examined butterfly wings not only under light that is visible to the human eye, but also under wavelengths beyond the visible, since the whole-spectrum response of butterfly wings, from the ultraviolet to the visible to the mid-infrared, governs their thermodynamic properties60,61,62,63 (Fig. 3).
An additional effect of wing closure is that the time constant of temperature changes increases substantially because of the increased thermal capacity. Thus dorsal basking with open wings and lateral basking with closed wings could have different effects on the thermodynamics of butterfly wings. In tropical and temperate climates, lateral basking with enhanced thermal emissivity and increased thermal capacity of the stacked wing pairs enables butterflies to bask longer to warm up their thoraces while reducing the risk of overheating the wings; in contrast, butterflies at high latitudes or altitudes could warm up their wings efficiently by dorsal basking in the sunlight with their wings fully or partially open.
Different butterfly species move their wings in characteristic ways to avoid thermal stimuli applied to the wings. For example, butterflies in the family Papilionidae with wings opened initially at rest tend to flap their wings, and butterflies in the family Lycaenidae with wings closed initially at rest tend to walk forward or turn around to avoid the laser spot (Supplementary Movie 8). Once the movement of the butterfly was observed, we blocked the laser beam immediately to prevent further increase of the wing temperature and possible damage caused by overheating.
48. This rapid survey of the history of philosophy, then, reveals a growing separation between faith and philosophical reason. Yet closer scrutiny shows that even in the philosophical thinking of those who helped drive faith and reason further apart there are found at times precious and seminal insights which, if pursued and developed with mind and heart rightly tuned, can lead to the discovery of truth's way. Such insights are found, for instance, in penetrating analyses of perception and experience, of the imaginary and the unconscious, of personhood and intersubjectivity, of freedom and values, of time and history. The theme of death as well can become for all thinkers an incisive appeal to seek within themselves the true meaning of their own life. But this does not mean that the link between faith and reason as it now stands does not need to be carefully examined, because each without the other is impoverished and enfeebled. Deprived of what Revelation offers, reason has taken side-tracks which expose it to the danger of losing sight of its final goal. Deprived of reason, faith has stressed feeling and experience, and so run the risk of no longer being a universal proposition. It is an illusion to think that faith, tied to weak reasoning, might be more penetrating; on the contrary, faith then runs the grave risk of withering into myth or superstition. By the same token, reason which is unrelated to an adult faith is not prompted to turn its gaze to the newness and radicality of being.
Moreover, one should not underestimate the danger inherent in seeking to derive the truth of Sacred Scripture from the use of one method alone, ignoring the need for a more comprehensive exegesis which enables the exegete, together with the whole Church, to arrive at the full sense of the texts. Those who devote themselves to the study of Sacred Scripture should always remember that the various hermeneutical approaches have their own philosophical underpinnings, which need to be carefully evaluated before they are applied to the sacred texts.
68. Moral theology has perhaps an even greater need of philosophy's contribution. In the New Testament, human life is much less governed by prescriptions than in the Old Testament. Life in the Spirit leads believers to a freedom and responsibility which surpass the Law. Yet the Gospel and the Apostolic writings still set forth both general principles of Christian conduct and specific teachings and precepts. In order to apply these to the particular circumstances of individual and communal life, Christians must be able fully to engage their conscience and the power of their reason. In other words, moral theology requires a sound philosophical vision of human nature and society, as well as of the general principles of ethical decision-making. 2ff7e9595c
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